When designing our lessons or  syllabus, it is necessary to select a design model (O’Neil, 2015). Choosing a model or synthesising features into a new model is related to choosing a certain learning theory that shows what is ultimately of value to us. More specifically, if we choose a model that focuses on knowledge dissemination by lecturers  while students are passive recipients , we are in fact only (or mainly) interested in the instructional content and possibly consider learning as simply presenting information to students (Smith, 1996; 2000 in Hughes & Munro, 2012: 22) assuming that just listening to the lecture is an adequate learning opportunity.

If we choose a goal-oriented model without creating adequate learning opportunities for students, we are interested in setting very specific goals that correlate – in a behavioural-technical way – with defined outcomes, and as such, perhaps knowledge is perceived as a ready-made product that students have to master themselves (Smith, 1996; 2000 in Hughes & Munro, 2012: 22). The question remains though if this is actually the case when it comes to transformative learning opportunities.

If we choose the process model (Stenhouse, 1972), which is grounded in constructivism, there is emphasis on active interaction among students and how knowledge is gradually transformed through the cultivation of social, metacognitive and cognitive skills (Smith, 1996; 2000 in Hughes & Munro, 2012: 22).